Emmanuel Chadeau

Doctoral Dissertation: État, Enterprise & Développement Économique : L’Industrie Aéronautique en France (1900-1940)

L'ECHEC DE LA RECHERCHE MILITAIRE (1880-1905) p.164

Chadeau unpublished dissertation p.175

Chadeau unpublished dissertation p.176

AERONAUTIQUE ET SOCIETE CIVILE : LES BASES DE L'INVENTION FECONDE p.176

Chadeau unpublished dissertation p.176

Chadeau unpublished dissertation p.176

Chadeau unpublished dissertation p.179

Chadeau unpublished dissertation p.179

Chadeau unpublished dissertation p.179

p. 180 Fig 57 LES CIRCUITS DE LA RECHERCHE AERONAUTIQUE PRIVEE EN FRANCE EN 1905

Chadeau unpublished dissertation p.180

Chadeau unpublished dissertation p.183

File:Chadeau ref to the plus lourds que l'air (81).jpg

Doctoral Dissertation reference to the heavier-than-air

File:Chadeau ref to Léon Delagrange (87).jpg

Doctoral Dissertation reference to Léon Delagrange

File:Chadeau ref to Santos Dumont & Henry Farman (88).jpg

Doctoral Dissertation reference to Alberto Santos-Dumont & Henry Farman

File:Chadeau ref to les Frères Voisin et Antoinette (90).jpg

Doctoral Dissertation references to ateliers we have designated as Appareils d'Aviation Les Frères Voisin and Société Antoinette

Fundamental Reflections On Chadeau Inclusive Of The Context And Nature Of His Work

Emmanuel Chadeau was primarily an economic historian, focusing on the economic and industrial development of France, with a fairly strong emphasis on aviation, in the context of these other emphases. Aside from his own prolific writing, he presented the writings of others, studies were conducted, under his direction, and the output of several colloquia were published, these colloquia occurring under his direction. In his capacity as faculty at Lille III, he also oversaw a great number of Master's theses. We are gradually working this complex out, by degrees, and as variably pertinent to his analyses of aeronautical development.

(For a developing summation of his overall historical analysis, as it pertains to our interests, see the material below, drawn from the unpublished version of his Doctoral dissertation, likely to be cross-referenced with the published version.)

(The other publication and academic titles we have here were drawn from a document FONDS EMMANUEL CHADEAU, given to us by a librarian at Lille III. Many names recur in the dynamic of these publication, with the role of Chadeau playing variably relative to the recurrent names of other scholars, such as Pierre Birnbaum. These "FONDS" also contain a great output of other scholarly work. To the work less directly touched by Chadeau himself we are more strictly applying the criteria of aero-relevance, and relevance to the period we are studying. We are being more broadly inclusive of Chadeau's own work, and that most directly directed by him. He did write beyond the aeronautical field, and he did write on aeronautical subjects as they developed after the years we are studying. We are giving him fairly complete coverage, as an individual, giving context to his more directly pertinent analyses. His works touched upon industrial property law as a context affecting the title "inventor"(ingénieur), on statist developments are administrative channels, specifically as they affected aeronautical progress, among vastly other things, and is of extraordinarily broad pertinence to our work.)

We are looking into Chadeau's several other published works. His collection of works, by others, many having to do with France's trajectory of industrial capital, some with a specific emphasis on aviation, is also of note. In his capacity as a faculty member at Université Lille-III, he did this collecting, pertinent to us, and he also oversaw the Masters' these of another generation.

Material Drawn From The Unpublished Version Of Chadeau’s Doctoral Dissertation

(Thèse Pour le Doctorat ES-Lettres et Sciences Humaines, Université de Paris-X-Nanterre, Octobre 1985)

État, Entreprise & Developpement Économique : L’Industrie Aéronautique en France (1900-1940)

There are five volumes to this, with “Parties” largely corresponding to these volumes. though Volume 2 includes both the “Deuxième Partie : Naissance de l’Entreprise Aéronautique (1900-1914)” and the “Troisième Partie : Prospérité, Affaires et Bureaucratie (1914-1918)”.

Volume 1, after acknowledgements, a photographic dossier, and a general introduction, gets into the “Première Partie : L’Industrie Jusqu’en 1940, Étude d’Ensemble”.

On the ground, as it were, at Lille-III, presented with the unpublished version of this dissertation, we focused on Volume 2, on the included “Deuxième Partie : Naissance de l’Entreprise Aéronautique (1900-1914)”. This opens with the assertion that it was between 1905 and the middle of 1909 that aviation arose, as an economic force, that is, with the simultaneous putting in place of the first builders of heavier-than-air, the professional organization of the entrepreneurs, and foresight regarding an emryonic market. Finally, there appeared the first connections between the “pôle d’activité” and the surrounding economic milieu.

(Stylistically and otherwise, this section of the dissertation is of note in that, while titularly emphasizing key early XXth Century developments, of the transition from invention, as such, and movements towards greater industrial scale, it also features a friendly and succinct summation of the preceding history, from work following that of the Frères Montgolfier, through the XIXth Century, up to the developments preceding the Great War.)

Our focus here is on a part of that Volume 2 (Birth of Aeronautic Enterprise (1900-1914), that is, on the “Deuxième Partie” of the dissertation, the first “part” included in the second volume. This “part” begins with the dissertation’s chapter 4, “les tout débuts : des ateliers dans les limbes (1900-1914)”. Grammar is peculiar here, but this is “all the beginnings : ateliers in the wings (1900-1909)”. This is the emphasis of the fraction of unpublished material we’ve retrieved from Lille-III, the peak in innovative “workshop” culture immediately preceding the full industrialization of aeronautics. It is partially a matter of fortune that Chadeau quickly segues into and begins this part of his analysis with a retrospective summation of all preceding French aeronautic history.

This is treated as a “crystallization” which was the fruit of long preceding evolution. The work thusly gets into some fine handling of Late-19th Century historical also of great interest.

This crystallization brings with it the distinguishing between methods of experimentation pertinent to motorized and non-motorized aircraft. One characteristic of this time is the separation of private initiative from the state. This founds the separation of enterprise from the state until 1936 and explains the essential traits of the industry until 1914, or even 1918 or 1920.

Crossed out of the unpublished material is a section on a check in military research taking place between 1880 and 1905 (p.164), though a mere title change is penciled in, and a changing of the timespan to 1899-1910.

The text starts with an analysis of the trajectory of dirigibles, alleging, at this point, aeronautic research being assured by the army, in the late 19th Century, this support being a rebirth of the tradition which had begun in the late 18th Century.

This earlier history is fleshed out, inclusive of the fundamental leap made between the balloon and the dirigible, the experimentation with the “Montgolfière” en November and December of 1793, conducted by Jean-François Pilâtre de Rozier, of the Marquis d’Arlandes, and of the doctors Charles and Robert, along with an officer in the Corps des Ingénieurs - the future Génie - the Lieutenant Jean-Baptiste Meusnier proposed the employment of balloons, driven by propellers, in the furtherance of military observations. (The term “Montgolfière” was naturally applied to aircraft based upon the balloon type invented by the Frères Montgolfier.)

Due to financial and technical difficulties, this aircraft was not constructed, but the idea of controlling air, in the furtherance of military command decisions, progressed. Meusnier was killed in June 1793, but his projects were continued under the leadership of Cassell, in collaboration with notables such as Louis-Bernard Guyton de Morveau, Antoine Laurent Lavoisier and Jean-Marie Coutelle being involved in the efforts.

These men focused on improvements to captive balloons, and a process of hydrogen gas fabrication by way of iron oxidation. Work with dirigible design was abandoned in favor of further improvement in "Montgolfière" balloons, but the concept of fabrication of the "envelope", itself, was able to progress.

It is Lhomond who, in October 1793, presents at the Tuileries a captive balloon prototype, produced by the French government, at the expense of an seized expatriate. He was convinced that an operational captive balloon would be produced. This aircraft appeared in June 1794 near the troops of Sambre and Meuse. Instructions specified its use in advance, but it was hoped that its appearance would bring an impression of terror, so as to discourage the enemy, or worse. From the 23rd to the 26th of June, 1794, these objectives were able to be attained.

The Armée de Jourdan (a French army hailing from France’s south) then captured and illicitly took this craft from Charleroi, Belgium, and took it to Fleurus (that is, slightly to the northeast).

Subsequently, and in a manner more pertinent to us, ten of these balloons were constructed, and on the 31st of October, 1794, an École National d’Aérostation was established, at Meudon, a bit to the west of Paris.

The ballons were nevertheless gradually withdrawn from the fighting and disappeared after the Siege of Mantoue in 1796, because the war left the heavily fortified areas or the armies evolved in a manner requiring less expansive encampment, rendering themselves more rapidly mobile. Captive balloons thus lost their utility. It required from 24 to 36 hours to prepare the hydrogen, the improvised forges which ennabled this work were hardly barely housable, and cavalry movements on the naturally partitioned war theaters of Italy. These factors all played against the balloon.

It wasn’t until after “la Guerre de 1870”, that is the Franco-Prussian War, that balloons regained their real place within French military capacity.

A conjunction of factors led to this resurgence. Pressed by the Prussian blockade, the French had demonstrated their efficacy in reestablishing contact with the Province : 66 balloons constructed “by amateurs”(this is redacted) near the gas factory of Vaurigard left Paris between the 23rd of September 1870 and the 28th of January 1871, and a military balloon, the “Jean Bart”, went from Chanzy to Blois. New techniques of inflation, the appearance of solid textiles in which their coating was facilitated by way of the same solidity, a factory for extracting hydrogen from coal ; these were factors supporting this renaissance.

Defeat, which pressed the need for military reform upon the French, gave the needed incentive. Gambetta, president of the Budget Commision in the Chamber of Deputees, intervened, with research credits starting in 1874. Le Génie, again, was endowed in 1876-1877 with an Établissement Central de l’Aérostation Militaire, situated in the parc de Chalais, in Meudon. Its direction was trusted to an officer 30 years of age, Charles Renard. From 1877 until death in 1905, the Captain, then Commandant and finally Colonel Renard dominated aeronautic research, which remained a strictly military matter.

The modernization of these observation crafts butted on the challenges to mobility, and thusly on the choice of an engine capable of motorizing them, then to render them “dirigibles” by the appropriate means. In 1884, Charles Renard and his assistant Arthur Krebs came to motorize a gas balloon, to which they gave an elongated form and a nacelle. An 8CV electric motor with chlorochromic piles endowed with a special hélice, adapted from those used in marine navigation. This aircraft, christened as the "Lafion", succeeded on 9 August 1884 in making a roundtrip between Meudon and Villacoublay in 23 minutes. This equals 19 km/hour. Up to the end of 1885 five other test flights followed.

The progress tapered off, then. The aircraft of 1884-1885 realized a technical balance. The challenge was then to re-find this balance faster and more powerful airships. From 1895 to 1892 Charles Renard tried approximately 20 motors - of gas, steam, and of liquid fuel (likely oil) - none of which were satisfactory Though their weight to power ratio was superior to that of their terrestrial equivalent of the time, they were still to weak for the propulsion of balloons. The establishment in 1890 of the world's first wind tunnel allowed Charles Renard to resume his studies. The new "Général Meusnier" couldn't be assured of stability beyond speeds of around 50 km/hour. He continued with the production of more primitive captive balloons.

It was during these same years that the French Army aided Clément Ader in his work with aircraft which were "plus lourds que l'air", that is, heavier-than-air. ... …

…

Gabriel Voisin was greatly affected by consultation with, and later by the writings of, Louis-Ferdinand Ferber. From Ferber's example "liberal" research went to lead and fix the initial and fundamental manner of industrialized French aeronautics. (p. 176 of the unpublished version of the dissertation)

The second section of chapter 4 focuses on aeronautics and civil society, as the bases of fertile invention, and begins with a subsection on proceedings up to 1906, the premises and initiatives.

Crucial is Henry Deutsch de la Meurthe (1846-1919), to whom credit is given for giving primacy to research into mechanical aeronautic. He was the motivator of the powerful Les Fils d’Alexandre Deutsch Compagnie which did business between oil firms in the US and Russia. He focused on the business outlets. As an engineer at the École des Mines in Paris, he conducted various business relations and did rather well. From 1886, he had aided in the furnishing of motors to the Général Meusnier of Charles Renard. It was at the Exposition Universelle de 1889, where he presided over a specialized jury, that he publicly affirmed his “mécénat”, that is, his rôle as protector of the “arts”. In 1895, along with Étienne van Zuylen van Nyevelt he created the Automobile Club. When Zuylen and the Jules-Albert marquis de Dion created the “identical” Aéro-Club de France in 1898, he wanted to affirm the force of his “mécénat”.

(Redacted, by pencil, following “1898”, is the assertion that Deutsch marked his preference of aeronautics, by participating individually in the works of his “commission de navigation aérienne”, the works of which were more “theoretical and utopian than sportive”. All of this characterization is entered, though to be redacted, as is the emphasis on the fact or idea that his “mécénat” was “private”. Other redactions, showing Chadeau's oscillating tone, include the characterization on the Automobile Club as an organ "of reception end propaganda".)

In 1889 he funded a 100,000 franc award, his Deutsch prize, for the first flyer to “doubler” the Eiffel Tower and to thusly demonstrate aircraft maneuverability.

…

… …

The role of the French state, heavily tangent both to the military, of course, and to industry more generally, as furthering or hindering the progressive impulses of the aeronautic pioneers, is always pertinent.

Chadeau follows the rises and falls in statist military-industrial support of the research engaged in by Clément Ader, the latter’s well-known formative work with the “heavier-than-air”, thoughts on Clément Ader, relative to the French military. For Ader's own writing on related subjects, see Ader, 1908, L'Aviation militaire.

There was support for Ader's “doctrine of usage”, of his Avions serving the army with intelligence, attacking enemy combattants on the ground, bombing and infiltrating enemy territory from behind. It was a Minister of War, Général Billot, who decided to suppress all of Ader's “subventions”, on 8 February 1898. See Jean-Baptiste Billot on French Wikipedia

Chadeau's Figure 57, on page 180, offers a diagram, and an explanation, articulating the dynamics of aeronautical development, inclusive of subcategories, relative to funding, the state, the military, and relative to other industries. All of this is penciled out. We are uncertain as to permanent inclusion, exclusion, or variation of the material in the published version. We are documenting his thought processes, over time, relative to our other manners of data tracking.

It is on p. 187 that the early ateliers are specifically labelled as "motors of progress", with an emphasis placed on those associated with Appareils d'Aviation Les Frères Voisin, and with the Société Antoinette.

Works of Chadeau himself and published scholarship conducted under his direction

• Chadeau, 1987
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, L’Économie nationale aux XIXe et XXe siècles, préface de François Caron, Paris, Presses de l’École normale supérieure, 1989
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Le rêve et la puissance : l’avion et son siècle, Paris, Fayard, 1996
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Les entreprises aéronautiques françaises (1909-1945), études présentées par Emmanuel Chadeau. Paris : Foundation Lyonnais : Association d’économie financière, 1996
• [[Chadeau, Emmanuel, Alliances stratégiques et intérêts industriels : les avatars de la politique aéronautique alliée (1914-1918), extrait de “Forces armées et systèmes d’alliances”, colloque international d’histoire militaire et d’études de défense nationale, Montpellier, 1981, p. 505-508, notes bibliogr.]]
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, L’épargne nationale trahie ?, extrait de “La France de l’affaire Dreyfus”, sous la direction de Pierre Birnbaum, ed. Gallimard, 1994, 362-384, notes bibliogr.
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Laurent-Eynac et l’aéronautique (1920-1914), extrait de “Cahiers de la Haute-Loire”, 1982, p. 195-210, notes bibliogr.
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Le contexte de la loi sur le titre d’ingénieur : les tensions de l’économie, extrait de : A. Grelon “Les ingénieurs de la crise”, Paris, EHESS, 1986, P. 49-59, notes bibliogr.
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Le plan et les administrateurs économiques jusqu’en 1965 : l’expérience des hommes, extrait de “De Monnet à Massé”, édition du CNRS, Paris, 1986, p. 15-25, notes bibliogr.
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Poids des filières socio-culturelles et nature de l’invention : l’aéroplane en France jusqu’en 1908, extrait de “L’année sociologique”, 1986, no. 36, p. 93-112, notes bibliogr.
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Constraintes technologiques et stratégies internationales : le moteur d’aviation, 1920-1970, extrait de “Enterprise et histoire”, 1992, no. 1, p. 61-78, notes bibliogr.
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Entre familles et managers : les grandes firmes de commerce de détail en France depuis 1945, extrait de “Revue du Nord”, Villeneuve d’Ascq, 1993, tome LXXV, no. 300, notes bibliogr.
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, The large family firm in twentieth-century France, extrait de “Family capitalism” edited by Geoffrey Jones and Mary B. Rose, “Business History”, 1993, vol. 35, no. 4, p. 184-205, notes bibliogr.
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, La permanence des petites et moyennes entreprises en France au XXème siècle, article, notes bibliogr.
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, L’École Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Lille vient d’avoir cent ans, extrait de “L’actualité chimique”, 1955, p. 53-62, notes bibliogr.
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, La rationalisation budgétaire et le ministère de l’industrie, 1949-1956, extrait de “La direction de budget dans las années cinquante”, Comité pour l’histoire économique et financière, 1998, p. 657-665, notes bibliogr.
• [[Chadeau, Emmanuel, L’économie française face à l’effort de guerre allemand : rapport de synthèse, extrait de “Frankreich und Deutschland im krieg (november 1942 -herbst 1944) okkupation, kollaboration, résistance” herausgegeben von Stefan Martens und Maurice Vaïsse, Bouvier verlag, 2000, p. (271)-275]]
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Saint-Exupéry, Paris : Plon, 486 p. Collection “Biographies”, Bibliogr. p. (465)-471. Index
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, De Blériot à Dassault : histoire de l’industrie aéronautique en France, 1900-1950, Paris : Fayard, ca. 1987, V- 552 p.- (16) p. de pl. Titre de couv. : L’industrie aéronautique en France, 1900-1950, Bibliogr. (497)-534. Index
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Les Inspecteurs des finances au XIXe siècle (1850-1914) : profil social et rôle économique, Paris : Economica, ca. 1986, III-184 p. Collection “Histoire”, Bibliogr. p. (91)-96. Index
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Le Rêve et son siècle, Paris : Fayard, 1996, p. 437, “Pour une histoire de Xxe siècle”, Bibliogr. p. (411)-421. Index
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Latécoère, Paris : O. Orban, ca. 1990, p. 330, (8) p. de pl. Bibliogr. p. (316)-323
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Louis Renault, Paris : Plon, 1998, 458 p. Index
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, L’Économie du risque : les entrepreneurs 1850-1980, Paris : O. Orban, ca. 1988, 327 p. Bibliogr. p. (319)-323
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Saint-Exupéry, Paris : Perrin, 2000, 321 p. (8)
• Chadeau, Emmanuel, Mermoz, Paris : Perrin, 2000, 365 p. (8) p. de pl. Bibliogr. p. (349)-358. Index.

Other Material Collected By Chadeau And Reflective His Analyses

(Our interests here include the status of the inventor, perspectives on the rise, or fall, of the innovative spirit, per se, the role of "ateliers", as dynamic precursors to later types of industrial organizations, and the role of the state, that is, the role of planning, in relation to individual initiative, all of these, along with other factors, as they indirectly, or quite directly, affect the aeronautic trajectory which is our focus.)

• Les ingénieurs, dir. de la publication Maurice Magnien, Neuilley-sur-Seine : Centre de recherche sur la culture technique, 1984, 355 p. Collection “Culture technique” : no. 12. Notes bibliogr.
• “Il était une fois l’innovation”, Agence nationale de valorisation de la recherche (France) : texte de Christian Marbach : commentaire de Jean-Baptiste Eggens, Paris : SER Ed., 19??, (31) p.
• Génie civil, dir. de la publication Maurice Magnien, Neuilley-sur-Seine : Centre de recherche sur la culture technique, 1984, 303 p. Collection “Culture technique” : no. 26. Notes bibliogr.
• Le guide du patrimoine industriel, scientifique et technique, sous la direction de Gérard Marie de Ficquement, Olivier Blin et Claudine Fontanon, Paris : La manufacture, 1990, 529 p.
• Manufacturing Industry Since 1870, Margaret Ackrill, Oxford : P. Allan, 1987, 250 p. Collection “Industrial Studies Series”, Bibliogr. Index.
• [[Louis Loucheur, 1872-1931 : ingénieur, homme d’état, modernisateur de la France, Stephen D. Carls : préface d’Emmanuel Chadeau : traduit de l’anglais par Alice-Catherine Carls. Villeneuve d’Ascq : Presses Universitaires du Septentrion, 2000, 333 p. Bibliogr. p. 305-316. Index.]]
• State Capitalism and Working-Class Radicalism in the French Aircraft Industry, Herrick Chapman, Berkely : Los Angeles : Oxford : University of California Press, 1991, XVII-414 p. plus (12) more pages Bibliogr. p. 375-396 Index
• Capitalism At War : Industrial Policy and Bureaucracy in France, 1914-1918, John F. Godfrey, with a foreward by Jay Winter, Leamington Spa : Hamburg : New York : Berg, 1987, XIV-313 p. Bibliogr. p. 301-309. Index.
• [[L’innovation technologique : facteur de changement (XIXe-XXe siècles), études rassemblées par G. Kurgan van Hentenryk et J. Stengers, Bruxelles, Belgique : Éditions de l’Université de Bruxelles, ca. 1986, 259 p. Collection “Faculté de philosophie et lettres” : 98. Notes bibliogr. Notes de dépouillement : L’introduction de la machine à filer le lin dans les Flandres et ses répercussions sociales/Eliane Gubin – Le patronat et le progrès technique dans les charbonnages liégeois/Nicole Caulier-Mathy – A propos de l’innovation technologique dans les mines du Hainaut au XIXe siècle, ou, La guerre des échelles n’a pas eu lieu/Jean Puissant ...]]
• De l’atelier au groupe industriel : Vallourec 1882-1978, Catherine Omnès, Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, Lille : P.U., 1980, 452 p. Collection “Travaux et Documents”. Bibliogr.
• [[Le siècle de Paul-Louis Weiller : 1893-1993 : ans de l’aviation de la Grande Guerre, pionnier de l’industrie aéronautique, précurseur d’Air France, Financier international, mécène des arts, Jaques Mousseau, Paris : Stock, 1998, 585 p. plus 12 more pages Bibligr. p. 559-564. Index.]]

Licences

A significant number of papers fitting this designation were put out, under the Chadeau’s direction, often direction shared with one or two other faculty. A few of these, listed within the FONDS EMMANUEL CHADEAU, make no mention of Chadeau. Aero-pertinence is patchy, but we are keeping this data on hand.

Maîtrises

Aside from Chadeau’s own Maîtrise, grouped here presently in keeping with the Lille III data we have uncovered, a significant number of theses fitting this designation were put out, under the Chadeau’s direction, often direction shared with one or two other faculty. A few of these, listed within the FONDS EMMANUEL CHADEAU, make no mention of Chadeau. This data is found elsewhere online. We are presently including only a few of these.

• Les inspecteurs des finances : 1871-1919, Emmanuel Chadeau, (s.l.) : (s.é.), 1977, XV-112 p. Maîtrise : Histoire contemporaine : Lille 3 : 1977, sous la direction de M. Lévy-Leboyer. Bibliogr. p. VIII-IX
• Louis Blériot, industriel français (1872-1936), Sylvie Picchi, Villeneuve d’Ascq : Dactylogramme, 1990, 178 p. DEA : Histoire contemporaine : Lille 3 : 1993, sous la direction de M. Chadeau. Bibliogr. p. 156-178. Index.
• L’armée de l’air en quête de son identité : 1900-1960, Patrick Facon, Paris : Dactylogramme, 2000, 2 vol, (134-347 p.), Thèse : Histoire contemporaine : Paris I : 2000, sous la direction de M. Vaïsse

Names	Emmanuel Chadeau
Birth date
Death date	circa 2000
Countries	FR
Locations	Lille
Occupations	author
Tech areas	Aviation, Industry, Atelier, Military, History, business history, aeronautical history, Heavier-than-air, Balloons, Aerostat, Dirigibles, Hélice
Affiliations	University of Lille, Lille III
Wikidata id